37.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior

A trigger is a specification that the database should automatically execute a particular function whenever a certain type of operation is performed. Triggers can be attached to tables (partitioned or not), views, and foreign tables.

On tables and foreign tables, triggers can be defined to execute either before or after any INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE operation, either once per modified row, or once per SQL statement. UPDATE triggers can moreover be set to fire only if certain columns are mentioned in the SET clause of the UPDATE statement. Triggers can also fire for TRUNCATE statements. If a trigger event occurs, the trigger's function is called at the appropriate time to handle the event.

On views, triggers can be defined to execute instead of INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE operations. Such INSTEAD OF triggers are fired once for each row that needs to be modified in the view. It is the responsibility of the trigger's function to perform the necessary modifications to the view's underlying base table(s) and, where appropriate, return the modified row as it will appear in the view. Triggers on views can also be defined to execute once per SQL statement, before or after INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE operations. However, such triggers are fired only if there is also an INSTEAD OF trigger on the view. Otherwise, any statement targeting the view must be rewritten into a statement affecting its underlying base table(s), and then the triggers that will be fired are the ones attached to the base table(s).

The trigger function must be defined before the trigger itself can be created. The trigger function must be declared as a function taking no arguments and returning type trigger . (The trigger function receives its input through a specially-passed TriggerData structure, not in the form of ordinary function arguments.)

Once a suitable trigger function has been created, the trigger is established with CREATE TRIGGER . The same trigger function can be used for multiple triggers.

PostgreSQL offers both per-row triggers and per-statement triggers. With a per-row trigger, the trigger function is invoked once for each row that is affected by the statement that fired the trigger. In contrast, a per-statement trigger is invoked only once when an appropriate statement is executed, regardless of the number of rows affected by that statement. In particular, a statement that affects zero rows will still result in the execution of any applicable per-statement triggers. These two types of triggers are sometimes called row-level triggers and statement-level triggers, respectively. Triggers on TRUNCATE may only be defined at statement level, not per-row.

Triggers are also classified according to whether they fire before , after , or instead of the operation. These are referred to as BEFORE triggers, AFTER triggers, and INSTEAD OF triggers respectively. Statement-level BEFORE triggers naturally fire before the statement starts to do anything, while statement-level AFTER triggers fire at the very end of the statement. These types of triggers may be defined on tables, views, or foreign tables. Row-level BEFORE triggers fire immediately before a particular row is operated on, while row-level AFTER triggers fire at the end of the statement (but before any statement-level AFTER triggers). These types of triggers may only be defined on tables and foreign tables, not views. INSTEAD OF triggers may only be defined on views, and only at row level; they fire immediately as each row in the view is identified as needing to be operated on.

The execution of an AFTER trigger can be deferred to the end of the transaction, rather than the end of the statement, if it was defined as a constraint trigger . In all cases, a trigger is executed as part of the same transaction as the statement that triggered it, so if either the statement or the trigger causes an error, the effects of both will be rolled back.

If an INSERT contains an ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE clause, it is possible for row-level BEFORE INSERT and then BEFORE UPDATE triggers to be executed on triggered rows. Such interactions can be complex if the triggers are not idempotent because change made by BEFORE INSERT triggers will be seen by BEFORE UPDATE triggers, including changes to EXCLUDED columns.

Note that statement-level UPDATE triggers are executed when ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE is specified, regardless of whether or not any rows were affected by the UPDATE (and regardless of whether the alternative UPDATE path was ever taken). An INSERT with an ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE clause will execute statement-level BEFORE INSERT triggers first, then statement-level BEFORE UPDATE triggers, followed by statement-level AFTER UPDATE triggers and finally statement-level AFTER INSERT triggers.

A statement that targets a parent table in an inheritance or partitioning hierarchy does not cause the statement-level triggers of affected child tables to be fired; only the parent table's statement-level triggers are fired. However, row-level triggers of any affected child tables will be fired.

If an UPDATE on a partitioned table causes a row to move to another partition, it will be performed as a DELETE from the original partition followed by an INSERT into the new partition. In this case, all row-level BEFORE UPDATE triggers and all row-level BEFORE DELETE triggers are fired on the original partition. Then all row-level BEFORE INSERT triggers are fired on the destination partition. The possibility of surprising outcomes should be considered when all these triggers affect the row being moved. As far as AFTER ROW triggers are concerned, AFTER DELETE and AFTER INSERT triggers are applied; but AFTER UPDATE triggers are not applied because the UPDATE has been converted to a DELETE and an INSERT . As far as statement-level triggers are concerned, none of the DELETE or INSERT triggers are fired, even if row movement occurs; only the UPDATE triggers defined on the target table used in the UPDATE statement will be fired.

No separate triggers are defined for MERGE . Instead, statement-level or row-level UPDATE , DELETE , and INSERT triggers are fired depending on (for statement-level triggers) what actions are specified in the MERGE query and (for row-level triggers) what actions are performed.

While running a MERGE command, statement-level BEFORE and AFTER triggers are fired for events specified in the actions of the MERGE command, irrespective of whether or not the action is ultimately performed. This is the same as an UPDATE statement that updates no rows, yet statement-level triggers are fired. The row-level triggers are fired only when a row is actually updated, inserted or deleted. So it's perfectly legal that while statement-level triggers are fired for certain types of action, no row-level triggers are fired for the same kind of action.

Trigger functions invoked by per-statement triggers should always return NULL . Trigger functions invoked by per-row triggers can return a table row (a value of type HeapTuple ) to the calling executor, if they choose. A row-level trigger fired before an operation has the following choices:

A row-level BEFORE trigger that does not intend to cause either of these behaviors must be careful to return as its result the same row that was passed in (that is, the NEW row for INSERT and UPDATE triggers, the OLD row for DELETE triggers).

A row-level INSTEAD OF trigger should either return NULL to indicate that it did not modify any data from the view's underlying base tables, or it should return the view row that was passed in (the NEW row for INSERT and UPDATE operations, or the OLD row for DELETE operations). A nonnull return value is used to signal that the trigger performed the necessary data modifications in the view. This will cause the count of the number of rows affected by the command to be incremented. For INSERT and UPDATE operations only, the trigger may modify the NEW row before returning it. This will change the data returned by INSERT RETURNING or UPDATE RETURNING , and is useful when the view will not show exactly the same data that was provided.

The return value is ignored for row-level triggers fired after an operation, and so they can return NULL .

Some considerations apply for generated columns. Stored generated columns are computed after BEFORE triggers and before AFTER triggers. Therefore, the generated value can be inspected in AFTER triggers. In BEFORE triggers, the OLD row contains the old generated value, as one would expect, but the NEW row does not yet contain the new generated value and should not be accessed. In the C language interface, the content of the column is undefined at this point; a higher-level programming language should prevent access to a stored generated column in the NEW row in a BEFORE trigger. Changes to the value of a generated column in a BEFORE trigger are ignored and will be overwritten.

If more than one trigger is defined for the same event on the same relation, the triggers will be fired in alphabetical order by trigger name. In the case of BEFORE and INSTEAD OF triggers, the possibly-modified row returned by each trigger becomes the input to the next trigger. If any BEFORE or INSTEAD OF trigger returns NULL , the operation is abandoned for that row and subsequent triggers are not fired (for that row).

A trigger definition can also specify a Boolean WHEN condition, which will be tested to see whether the trigger should be fired. In row-level triggers the WHEN condition can examine the old and/or new values of columns of the row. (Statement-level triggers can also have WHEN conditions, although the feature is not so useful for them.) In a BEFORE trigger, the WHEN condition is evaluated just before the function is or would be executed, so using WHEN is not materially different from testing the same condition at the beginning of the trigger function. However, in an AFTER trigger, the WHEN condition is evaluated just after the row update occurs, and it determines whether an event is queued to fire the trigger at the end of statement. So when an AFTER trigger's WHEN condition does not return true, it is not necessary to queue an event nor to re-fetch the row at end of statement. This can result in significant speedups in statements that modify many rows, if the trigger only needs to be fired for a few of the rows. INSTEAD OF triggers do not support WHEN conditions.

Typically, row-level BEFORE triggers are used for checking or modifying the data that will be inserted or updated. For example, a BEFORE trigger might be used to insert the current time into a timestamp column, or to check that two elements of the row are consistent. Row-level AFTER triggers are most sensibly used to propagate the updates to other tables, or make consistency checks against other tables. The reason for this division of labor is that an AFTER trigger can be certain it is seeing the final value of the row, while a BEFORE trigger cannot; there might be other BEFORE triggers firing after it. If you have no specific reason to make a trigger BEFORE or AFTER , the BEFORE case is more efficient, since the information about the operation doesn't have to be saved until end of statement.

If a trigger function executes SQL commands then these commands might fire triggers again. This is known as cascading triggers. There is no direct limitation on the number of cascade levels. It is possible for cascades to cause a recursive invocation of the same trigger; for example, an INSERT trigger might execute a command that inserts an additional row into the same table, causing the INSERT trigger to be fired again. It is the trigger programmer's responsibility to avoid infinite recursion in such scenarios.

If a foreign key constraint specifies referential actions (that is, cascading updates or deletes), those actions are performed via ordinary SQL update or delete commands on the referencing table. In particular, any triggers that exist on the referencing table will be fired for those changes. If such a trigger modifies or blocks the effect of one of these commands, the end result could be to break referential integrity. It is the trigger programmer's responsibility to avoid that.

When a trigger is being defined, arguments can be specified for it. The purpose of including arguments in the trigger definition is to allow different triggers with similar requirements to call the same function. As an example, there could be a generalized trigger function that takes as its arguments two column names and puts the current user in one and the current time stamp in the other. Properly written, this trigger function would be independent of the specific table it is triggering on. So the same function could be used for INSERT events on any table with suitable columns, to automatically track creation of records in a transaction table for example. It could also be used to track last-update events if defined as an UPDATE trigger.

Each programming language that supports triggers has its own method for making the trigger input data available to the trigger function. This input data includes the type of trigger event (e.g., INSERT or UPDATE ) as well as any arguments that were listed in CREATE TRIGGER . For a row-level trigger, the input data also includes the NEW row for INSERT and UPDATE triggers, and/or the OLD row for UPDATE and DELETE triggers.

By default, statement-level triggers do not have any way to examine the individual row(s) modified by the statement. But an AFTER STATEMENT trigger can request that transition tables be created to make the sets of affected rows available to the trigger. AFTER ROW triggers can also request transition tables, so that they can see the total changes in the table as well as the change in the individual row they are currently being fired for. The method for examining the transition tables again depends on the programming language that is being used, but the typical approach is to make the transition tables act like read-only temporary tables that can be accessed by SQL commands issued within the trigger function.